Institutional Resilience:

Peer Support Training as a Systemic Wellness Strategy for Correctional Agencies

Naysha Rivera-Hartley, MS, Vincent B. Van Hassel,t PhD, Gregory Tony, PhD, Quina Munson, PsyD, Gabrielle LaRock, MA, and Ryan A. Black, PhD

Correctional Officers (COs) are the unseen backbone of the criminal justice system. They are tasked with maintaining order, ensuring safety, and managing some of the most stressful environments imaginable. The walls of a correctional facility hold not only those who are incarcerated, but also the accumulated stress and trauma of the men and women who work within them. Overcrowding, staff shortages, mandatory overtime, and the constant possibility of violence create an environment of hypervigilance and fatigue (Montoya-Barthelemy et al., 2021).

Unlike other first responders, who may cycle between high-intensity calls and periods of reprieve, COs often operate in a state of constant pressure. Further, personal stressors, such as negative social image, relationship conflicts, financial concerns, and physical health problems (e.g., hypertension, obesity, increased blood pressure, and cortisol levels) can negatively impact work stress and performance (Armstrong et al., 2015). The human costs are substantial, but the organizational costs are also significant. High turnover rates, absenteeism, increased liability, and diminished morale disrupt facility operations and compromise safety for both staff and inmates (Byrd et al., 2000).

A burgeoning body of research has also examined the mental health of COs. Work in the area has indicated that this population is at particularly high risk for developing a wide range of problems, including: anxiety disorders (Carleton et al., 2018, 2020), major depressive disorder (Liu et al., 2013; Obidoa et al., 2011), substance use (Ballenger et al., 2010; Fusco et al., 2021), burnout, emotional dysregulation, and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) (Ellison & Jaegers, 2022; Lerman et al., 2022) as a result of workplace stress and exposure to violence. Indeed, mental health assessment findings from the National Wellness Survey for Public Safety Personnel conducted by the U.S. Marshals Service (Miller-Anguay et al., 2025) revealed that over one-third of the 190 participating COs reported symptoms of anxiety (39.3%), depression (36.3%), and PTSD (28%) at rates well beyond civilian counterparts. Notably, most COs also endorsed being negatively impacted by their job, yet were reluctant to seek professional help. Further, as Weldon (2025) underscores, “Suicide is a deep, dark secret found within the public safety field, especially in corrections” (p. 3). Of concern in this regard are data obtained by Carleton et al. (2022), who found that a significant percentage of COs self-reported suicidal ideation (26%), plans (11%), and attempts (5%).

While it is clear that there is a need for available mental health services to assist COs, they, like other first responder groups, have historically been resistant to these for several reasons:

  1. the stigma and fear of being viewed by peers as weak and as someone who cannot be counted on in a challenging situation,
  2. lack of confidentiality (i.e., information from departmental mental health/EAP providers being leaked to supervisors, thus impacting their job status, promotions, etc.),
  3. general distrust of mental health professionals (“outsiders”) who are unfamiliar with the first responder culture, making it difficult, if not impossible, to establish the rapport that is a prerequisite for effective intervention.

Due to the abovementioned concerns, utilization of peer support programs has garnered increased attention in recent years. Research indicates that peer support programs are effective in improving mental health outcomes and job satisfaction for law enforcement officers by providing a relatable and trustworthy support system (Cnapich et al., 2022). According to Van Hasselt et al. (2019), “The rationale for these approaches is that being able to consult with a peer may decrease the resistance and stigma associated with seeking help for a psychological problem. Officers are more likely to be comfortable approaching a peer concerning any problems they may have rather than a mental health professional, at least initially” (pp. 1-2).

Further advantages of utilizing peers in mental health prevention efforts are that they can be trained to identify signs, symptoms, and risk factors of developing or existing mental health issues (e.g., depression, PTSD) that affect fellow officers. Peers can help break through the cultural challenges mentioned previously and serve as a “first line of defense” in getting the message across to fellow officers that a mental health problem is not a sign of weakness or of an inability to work; rather, it may reflect a very real response to the cumulative stress and challenges of working in a correctional environment. Additionally, peers can serve as a resource for information on mental health professionals (psychologists, psychiatrists, marriage and family counselors) who have been vetted for their experience and skill in working with first responders.

The Peers As Law Enforcement Support (PALS) Model

The Peers As Law Enforcement Support (PALS) was originally developed by Vincent Van Hasselt, PhD, and doctoral students at Nova Southeastern University as an early intervention and prevention initiative for law enforcement personnel (see Van Hasselt et al., 2019). The program was created to reduce stigma surrounding mental health care, enhance coping and resilience, and promote early help-seeking through trained peer supporters. Over the past several years, PALS has been implemented across multiple law enforcement agencies, including police and sheriff’s departments, showing high participant satisfaction, significant knowledge acquisition, perceived improvements in communication and morale, and reductions in barriers to seeking professional help (Cnapich et al., 2022).

Role play assessments of potential peer interactions have also yielded evidence of improved utilization of active listening skills (Schumann et al., 2025). Given these outcomes, the PALS-C (Corrections) initiative was developed as a natural extension of the established PALS framework. While maintaining the same peer-led confidential support methodology, PALS-C adapts the training modules to reflect the distinct stressors of correctional environments, such as continuous inmate contact, mandatory overtime, and the duplicity of roles between maintaining custody of inmates while simultaneously providing care. The continuity of the program’s philosophies represents a specialized expansion of the original evidence-based model within carceral settings.

Peers As Law Enforcement Support – Corrections (PALS-C)

Building upon the established Peers As Law Enforcement Support (PALS) model, PALS-C is a voluntary peer support training program developed through collaboration between Nova Southeastern University’s First Responder Research and Training program and partnering correctional agencies such as Miami-Dade Corrections and Rehabilitation and Broward Sheriff’s Office Department of Detention. The program, designed to strengthen correctional staff’s well-being and resilience, has been piloted with correctional staff since 2023, demonstrating strong engagement and positive feedback in pre- and post-training evaluations (Rivera-Hartley et al., in press). The training is designed to:

  1. Offer a reliable resource for colleagues facing personal or professional crises.
  2. Emphasize the value of social, physical, relational, and emotional health among officers.
  3. Equip participants with the skills to recognize and defuse conflict through the utilization of active listening and supportive engagement.
  4. Promote communication, encouragement, trust, and confidentiality within the peer network.
  5. Connect staff in need with appropriate professional or community resources for themselves or their families when warranted.

Delivered in a 16-hour format, the PALS-C curriculums cover several modules (see “Program Modules” below), stress management, anxiety, depression, substance use as a modality of self-medication, post-traumatic stress disorder, suicide awareness and prevention, including risk and protective factors, crisis intervention, and resource awareness. Utilizing skills such as active listening, empathic understanding, and exploring strategies for post-traumatic growth and resilience, peer supporters are prepared to provide validation and support to peers who may not otherwise seek services. A key strategy to teaching the aforementioned skills is employing scenario-based exercises, which are integrated throughout each of the modules to build confidence and assess readiness to serve as a peer supporter.

Modeled after the original Peers as Law Enforcement Support (PALS) program (Van Hasselt et al., 2019), PALS-C is a voluntary initiative designed to provide COs with confidential support from trained peers who share an understanding of the unique stressors of the profession. The program functions as both a prophylactic and responsive resource, equipping officers with practical and accessible tools to address workplace stress and personal challenges. By creating an internal network of peer supporters, PALS-C offers a safe avenue for assistance while helping correctional peers make sense of their experiences, fostering resilience, reducing mental health stigmatization, and promoting overall wellness within correctional settings.

Crucial to the efficacy and “buy-in” of PALS-C is that peer team members are sensitive to issues of trust, confidentiality, and anonymity for peers seeking assistance. It is emphasized that contacts and interactions involving a team member and fellow officer are confidential, with the exception of matters that violate the law” (Van Hasselt et al., 2019, p 2.). Peer supporters also receive specialized training in active listening and communication, preparing them to provide meaningful support to colleagues facing challenges. Additionally, PALS-C serves as a link connecting officers with mental health professionals when intervention is needed and reinforcing overall workforce well-being. Peer support programs like PALS-C are integral to behavioral health services within law enforcement agencies, serving as an additional layer of support that complements traditional resources such as Employee Assistance Programs. They maintain the highest standards of confidentiality and trust, ensuring that officers feel safe when seeking assistance.

Program Modules

PALS-C uses a combination of learning methods, including PowerPoint modules, mental health videos, and role-play exercises. These are described briefly below.

Active Listening Skills

Active listening skills are a cornerstone of effective peer support. COs are regularly faced with unique stressors that are different and unpredictable from day to day. Because of this lack of environmental predictability, peer support must go beyond casual conversations. Active listening helps build trust, encourages open communication, and allows officers to feel heard and understood. Techniques such as open-ended questions, paraphrasing, summarizing, minimal encouragers, and reflective statements create a safe, nonjudgmental space for officers to share their struggles.

Depression

Addressing depression is critical, as it is one of the most common but often misunderstood mental health conditions among COs. Depression extends far beyond sadness as it can appear as irritability, anger, impulsiveness, or social withdrawal, all of which are common within law enforcement settings. Many COs may dismiss these symptoms as stress or burnout, failing to recognize them as signs of something more serious. Educating peer supporters about the symptoms, risk factors, and gender differences in depression symptom manifestation enables them to recognize when a peer may be struggling and provide meaningful support.

Substance Use

Substance use, particularly alcohol, has historically been normalized within law enforcement culture as a way to cope with stress, trauma exposure, and irregular shift work. Research shows that while about 8% of the general population report alcohol-related problems, rates among law enforcement officers rise to 16-18%, with actual numbers potentially being higher due to underreporting (Ballenger et al., 2010). Alcohol use is often linked to bonding rituals, after-shift decompression, or managing the emotional toll of the job. Unfortunately, this normalization can delay or mask recognition of problematic use, leading to dependence, impaired or attenuated judgment, and significant long-term health consequences.

Anxiety and PTSD

COs are at heightened risk for both anxiety and PTSD due to the inherent stress and trauma associated with their work. Frequent exposure to violent incidents, unpredictable environments, and critical life-threatening events can leave prolonged psychological effects. Studies confirm elevated rates of anxiety, depression, and PTSD among public safety professionals worldwide (Carleton et al., 2017). While acute stress reactions may fade over time, PTSD symptoms can persist, often emerging months or years after the initial or what is referred to as the “index” trauma (Benedek et al., 2007). Symptoms may include hypervigilance, flashbacks, avoidance, or emotional numbness, all of which can interfere not only with daily personal functioning but also with professional safety responsibilities.

Suicide Awareness

Suicide awareness is a crucial component of peer support training. Suicide rates among COs are estimated to be nearly 40% higher than the national average, and data consistently show that more officers die by suicide than in the line of duty (Violanti, 2017). The demanding pressures of correctional work, including repeated secondary or vicarious trauma exposure, high-stakes decision-making situations, and a cultural resistance to vulnerability, create conditions where officers often suffer in silence (Benedek et al., 2007). Peer support programs aim to break through this silence, offering early intervention and fostering open and honest conversations that can save lives.

Resilience and Post-Traumatic Growth

Resilience, which is the capacity to recover from adversity, is a protective factor that influences how officers respond to traumatic experiences. While some individuals may develop chronic stress or PTSD, others are able to process events in an adaptive way and even grow from them. Educating peer supporters about resilience helps them guide their colleagues toward recognizing stress responses, adopting healthy coping strategies, and avoiding maladaptive behaviors such as isolation or substance misuse. Resilient officers tend to maintain better attendance, engage more consistently with resources, and demonstrate improved overall well-being (Ballenger et al., 2010; Van Hasselt et al., 2019).

Organizational Benefits: What’s in It for Correctional Agencies?

Beyond supporting individual officers, peer support programs generate organizational benefits. Facilities with established peer support programs often report improved morale, greater cohesion among staff, and increased trust between officers and leadership (Milliard, 2020). These cultural shifts reduce stigma, encourage open communication, and help prevent crises before they escalate.

Retention is another critical outcome. Recruiting and training a single correctional officer can cost tens of thousands of dollars (Byrd et al., 2000). Agencies that invest in peer support demonstrate care for their personnel, which translates into greater job satisfaction and reduced attrition. Similarly, absenteeism decreases when officers have access to confidential, immediate support during times of distress (McCanlies et al., 2018).

By addressing stress proactively, these programs not only safeguard officer wellness but also reduce institutional risk exposure (Montoya-Barthelemy et al., 2021). From a liability perspective, peer support programs reduce the likelihood of officer misconduct, excessive use of force, and critical errors in judgment.

Implementing Peer Support Programs in Corrections

The success of peer support programs depends on deliberate and thoughtful implementation. Confidentiality must be emphasized to overcome stigma and mistrust (Milliard, 2020). Leadership buy-in is critical: When administrators champion wellness initiatives, they normalize participation and set a positive cultural tone.

Peer supporters should be interviewed by a selection panel and chosen based on their level of approachability, empathy, and trustworthiness rather than rank alone. Ongoing education and supervision protect peer supporters from secondary or vicarious trauma and sustain program effectiveness (Benedek et al., 2007). Regular refresher trainings, peer debriefs, and access to mental health professionals further enhance program sustainability (Cnapich et al., 2022).

Implementing annual program evaluation ensures accountability and assists the agency in improving the program to better fit the needs of personnel. Consequently, agencies should monitor utilization, retention, absenteeism, and morale indicators to assess impact (McCanlies et al., 2018). Such data can also serve to provide justification for continued program funding and expansion.

Conclusion

Correctional officers carry extraordinary burdens that affect both their personal lives and institutional safety. Peer support programs such as PALS-C provide an evidence-based framework for resilience, support, and cultural change. For officers, it means trusted colleagues who are familiar with the organization’s dynamics and can listen and guide them toward resources. For agencies, it translates into improved retention, reduced liability, and stronger institutional integrity.

Wellness in corrections should not be viewed as an optional initiative, but rather as a core element of operational success. Investing in peer support programs is investing in the facility’s personnel and is both a moral obligation and a strategic responsibility. The early outcomes from the model-demonstration implementation of PALS-C underscore the adaptability of the PALS framework within correctional settings and provide a roadmap for broader replication across other agencies. The time is now for correctional leaders to embed wellness into the fabric of their agencies, ensuring that those who protect and supervise others are also protected themselves.

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Naysha Rivera-Hartley, MS, is a doctoral candidate in Clinical Psychology with a concentration in Serious Mental Illness at Nova Southeastern University. For more information, she can be contacted at nr1084@nova.edu

Vincent B. Van Hasselt, PhD, Professor of Psychology and Director of the First Responder Research and Training Program at Nova Southeastern University in Fort. Lauderdale, Florida, and a Reserve Deputy Sheriff with the Broward Sheriff’s Office. For more information, he can be contacted at vanhasse@nova.edu

Sheriff Gregory Tony, PhD, serves as the elected Sheriff of Broward County, Florida. For more information, he can be contacted at Gregory@doctorgregorytony.com

Quina Munson, PsyD, supervises the Miami-Dade Corrections and Rehabilitation Department’s Employee Wellness Unit (EWU). For more information, Dr. Munson can be contacted at Quina.Munson@miamidade.gov

Gabrielle LaRock, MA, is a doctoral candidate in Clinical Psychology at Nova Southeastern University. For more information, she can be contacted at gl840@nova.edu

Ryan A. Black, PhD., is an Associate Professor in the Department of Clinical and School Psychology at NSU's College of Psychology. For more information, he can be contacted at blackrya@nova.edu

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