Educating the Incarcerated:
How Correctional Educators Reduce Recidivism
Malik Muhammad, EdD
The history of correctional education dates back to 1787, when William Rogers became the first to teach in a correctional facility. Specifically, his pioneering efforts helped identify the educational needs of incarcerated individuals, thereby contributing to the initial change in how inmate rehabilitation was viewed. Correctional educators play a critical role in providing educational opportunities to the nation’s incarcerated individuals. Yet, there is a limited base of knowledge identifying their contributions in reducing recidivism rates through education.
In the United States, the incarcerated population far exceeds the norm for nations of similar size by population demographics. Approximately 2.3 million incarcerated people in the United States are in correctional facilities. As such, nearly 700,000 inmates are released from federal and state correctional facilities each year. Nationwide efforts to address jail and prison overcrowding have brought awareness to reducing the incarceration rate. The lack of primary education increases the likelihood of incarceration and some form of involvement in the criminal justice system.
The Big Picture
In the U.S, the criminal justice system is collectively comprised of 1,566 state prisons, 102 federal prisons, 2,850 jails, 1,510 juvenile facilities, 186 detention facilities, and 82 Indian Tribal jails (Sawyer & Wagner, 2022). As the perception of incarceration changed, so did the need for recidivism programs, which historically may not have included educational opportunities. A study conducted by the Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) in 2017 reported that “30% of incarcerated adults have attained less than a high school diploma” (Tofig, 2017, pp. 2–3). Anecdotally, these statistics seem to perpetuate the urban myths associated with the school-to-prison pipeline.
Previous studies also identified that students who drop out of high school may be more likely to be unemployed and earn less than those who graduate. According to a report by the National Center for Educational Studies (2019), high school dropouts make up a higher percentage of the nation’s institutionalized population than the noninstitutionalized population (McFarland et al., 2020). The lack of primary education may increase the chances of incarceration and involvement in the criminal justice system.
As such, correctional institutions in the United States are experiencing an influx of offenders without educational attainment at the K-12 grade level. Compared to the non-incarcerated adult population, about 41% of inmates do not have a high school diploma at the time of arrest (Bender, 2018). Providing offenders with educational opportunities while they are incarcerated may reduce the likelihood of recidivism for these individuals.
Benefits of Education
Additionally, a 2018 meta-analysis of correctional education programs found that providing education in corrections yields benefits. Correctional programming has also been credited with improving reentry into society and reducing recidivism rates, thereby lowering the fiscal burdens of incarceration for taxpayers. The benefit of education within correctional facilities nationwide has provided opportunities for adult and juvenile offenders to transition successfully back into society with the tools needed for a productive lifestyle.
The Department of Justice previously published a multilevel analysis of the perceptions of correctional educators working in the Federal Bureau of Prisons. The researcher interviewed 63 academic and vocational staff responsible for educating federal inmates. The resulting study found that minimal attention and research have been focused on the work experiences of correctional educators (Bozick et al., 2018). Moreover, the work of correctional educators is largely unknown; however, their impact is notable, with approximately 4,168 incarcerated persons earning a General Education Diploma (GED) in 2023, while in federal custody.
Educators in Action
Correctional education can be defined as any educational activity that occurs under the supervision of the criminal justice system (Carver & Harrison, 2016). The uniqueness of teaching in a correctional facility is heightened by educators who must understand institutional security and the clear and present danger of collaborating with incarcerated individuals (Austin et al., 2016). Despite the inherent dangers of working in a correctional facility compared to a traditional academic environment, educators still choose to work in correctional facilities (Baker, 2018).
The role of correctional educators is hazardous and comparable to those tasked with supervising offenders. Unlike correctional officers, whose primary goal is care, custody, and control, educators can positively impact the lives of those incarcerated by providing educational opportunities that facilitate successful reintegration into society.
Specifically, educators’ skills, training, and experiences may contribute to their ability to navigate correctional facility work successfully.
Wright (2007) stated, “Most prison teachers did not intend to teach in prison. They started teaching in prison casually, or by accident, rather than part of a sequence mediated preservice stage of professional development” (pp. 19–38). Furthermore, teaching within a correctional facility may present educators with challenges that are not typically encountered in traditional academic environments. These challenges may include blended classrooms with inmates of various classifications and educational levels and the ever-present propensity for classroom violence (Patrie, 2017).
Institutional security ensures the appropriate classification of inmates in the educator’s classroom. However, it is essential to note that this practice may be modified during classroom instruction. Specifically, correctional facilities may allow incarcerated individuals with various custody levels to attend educational programming together, whereas this practice in the general correctional setting would usually be prohibited. Additionally, the unwritten rules governing inmate behaviors must be factored into classroom management (Bacon et al., 2020).
Where Do We Go From Here?
Primary education is essential for self-sustainability and can enhance overall employment opportunities. Adults and juveniles within correctional facilities were found to be 28% less likely to return to jail when educational programs were offered (Silber & Kara, 2018). Likewise, the same academic program benefits were equally applicable to post-employment opportunities before release. The benefits of education within correctional facilities nationwide have provided opportunities for adult and juvenile offenders to transition successfully back into society with the tools needed for self-sufficiency.
According to Yates (2017), “Our goal is to create pathways for inmates to succeed, regardless of their educational progress when they enter the system; we will meet them where they are and take them as far as they can go” (p. 2). Conversely, in 2020, the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics published a report identifying the educational levels required for projected employment from 2019 to 2029. Correctional program opportunities inside a correctional facility are valuable tools for improving the success rates of released inmates.
The projections were based on a review of 800 occupations, and the education requirements for each occupation were identified. This report identified that 103 occupations required no formal education, and 322 occupations required a high school diploma or a GED equivalent, which represented almost double the number compared to other educational occupational levels.
Education within the correctional setting has also shown benefits of reduced recidivism rates. Their findings support the assertion that educational opportunities while incarcerated reduce the risk of returning to incarceration.
Conclusion
Now more than ever, it is important to provide educational opportunities to the estimated two million incarcerated people being held in the nation’s correctional facilities. This number collectively represents 1% of the adult population in the United States and can be further broken down to 1 in 100 Americans. When viewing the intake rates through the lens of rehabilitative efforts, it is understood that the current educational system used to provide literacy opportunities while incarcerated highlights the need for correctional educators.
According to the National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES), in 2022, there were 2.1 million students aged 16-24 who dropped out of high school. As one of the many consequences of leaving school without a diploma, educators working in correctional facilities often serve as last-chance surrogates in some cases, collectively working toward addressing literacy attainment failures prior to incarceration. Their efforts have a direct impact on reducing the number of released offenders who are arrested again after incarceration.
Documented empirical research supports the relationship between educational outcomes and future incarceration, confirming the symbiotic associations of limited literacy and criminal behavior.
Collectively, the failure of traditional educational institutions to properly prepare the nation’s youth during K-12 inevitably may contribute to future liaisons in the nation’s correctional facilities. Moreover, every missed opportunity at literacy provides an additional gateway to recidivism upon release. Correctional educators offer a meaningful opportunity to the nation’s poorest, disenfranchised, and often marginalized populations— contributing to a second chance at the American Dream for many.
_______________________________
Dr. Malik Muhammad, Ed.D., is a Major with the Orange County Corrections Department in Orlando, Florida, and the President of The Muhammad Group. Additionally, he serves as an adjunct professor of criminal justice at Valencia College. His research interests include First Responders’ PTSD, Restorative Justice, and Cesare Lombroso’s Atavistic Theory of Crime. He can be reached at Malik.Muhammad@ocfl.net or ContactMuhammadGroup@ gmail.com
References
Baker, K. (2018). Education opportunities in prison are key to reducing crime. Center for American Progress. https://www.americanprogress. org/issues/education-k-12/ news/2018/03/02/447321/ education-opportunities-prison-key reducing-crime/
Bozick, R., Steele, J., Davis, L., & Turner, S. (2018). Does providing inmates with education improve post release outcomes? A meta-analysis of correctional education programs in the United States. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 14(3), 389–428. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11292-018-9334-6
Gehring, T. (1995). Characteristics of Correctional Instruction, 1789-1875. Journal of Correctional Education, 46(2), 52–59. https://www-jstor-org. une.idm.oclc.org/stable/23292023
Goodey, S., Spuhler, B., & Bradford, K. (2019). Relationship education among incarcerated populations. Marriage & Family Review, 55(7), 651–666. https://doi.org/10.1080/0 1494929.2019.1589615
Kohlenberg, M. (2019, July 2). Booked but Can’t Read: “Functional Literacy.”. New York University Review of Law and Social Change, 2(44), 13–17. https:// papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers. cfm?abstract_id=3413339
Muhlhausen, D. B., & Hurwitz, H. J. (2019). First step act: Best practices for academic and vocational education for offenders. U.S. Department of Justice, 32(1), 56–62. https://doi.org/10.1525/ fsr.2019.32.1.56
Patrie, N. (2017). Learning to be a Prison Educator. Journal of Prison Education and Reentry, 4(1), 17. https://doi. org/10.15845/jper.v4i1.1050
Sawyer, W., & Wagner, P. (2022, March 14). Mass incarceration: The whole pie 2022 [PDF]. Prison Policy Initiative. https://www. prisonpolicy.org/reports/pie2022. html#:~:text=But%20over%20 40%25%20of%20people,of%20 otherwise%20well%2Dcrafted%20 policies.
Tapia, M., Blalock, D., Choi, J., & Ochoa, E. (2020). Dropout and Incarceration: Extending the School-to-Prison Pipeline (STPP) Construct. Justice Policy Journal, 17(2), 3–7.
Tofig, D. (2017). Education and Training Opportunities in America’s Prisons. National Center for Education Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/ blogs/nces/2017/01/11/default
Torpey, E. (2018, April). Employment Outlook for Bachelor’s-level Occupations: Career outlook: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. https:// www.bls.gov/careeroutlook/2018/ article/bachelors-degree-outlook. htm
Vandewater, C. (2014, July 24). Lessons in lock-up: What it’s really like to teach in prison. Teach.com. https://teach.com/resources/ teaching-in-prison-system/
Wright, R. (2007). Going to teach in prison: Culture shock. The Journal of Correctional Education, 56, 19–38. https://www.csusb.edu/ sites/default/files/GoingTo TeachinPrisonsCultureShock.pdf
